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1 Logic
My initial step... was to attempt to reduce the concept of ordering in a sequence to that of logical consequence, so as to proceed from there to the concept of number. To prevent anything intuitive from penetrating here unnoticed, I had to bend every effort to keep the chain of inference free of gaps. In attempting to comply with this requirement in the strictest possible way, I found the inadequacy of language to be an obstacle. (Frege, 1972, p. 104)I believe I can make the relation of my 'conceptual notation' to ordinary language clearest if I compare it to the relation of the microscope to the eye. The latter, because of the range of its applicability and because of the ease with which it can adapt itself to the most varied circumstances, has a great superiority over the microscope. Of course, viewed as an optical instrument it reveals many imperfections, which usually remain unnoticed only because of its intimate connection with mental life. But as soon as scientific purposes place strong requirements upon sharpness of resolution, the eye proves to be inadequate.... Similarly, this 'conceptual notation' is devised for particular scientific purposes; and therefore one may not condemn it because it is useless for other purposes. (Frege, 1972, pp. 104-105)To sum up briefly, it is the business of the logician to conduct an unceasing struggle against psychology and those parts of language and grammar which fail to give untrammeled expression to what is logical. He does not have to answer the question: How does thinking normally take place in human beings? What course does it naturally follow in the human mind? What is natural to one person may well be unnatural to another. (Frege, 1979, pp. 6-7)We are very dependent on external aids in our thinking, and there is no doubt that the language of everyday life-so far, at least, as a certain area of discourse is concerned-had first to be replaced by a more sophisticated instrument, before certain distinctions could be noticed. But so far the academic world has, for the most part, disdained to master this instrument. (Frege, 1979, pp. 6-7)There is no reproach the logician need fear less than the reproach that his way of formulating things is unnatural.... If we were to heed those who object that logic is unnatural, we would run the risk of becoming embroiled in interminable disputes about what is natural, disputes which are quite incapable of being resolved within the province of logic. (Frege, 1979, p. 128)[L]inguists will be forced, internally as it were, to come to grips with the results of modern logic. Indeed, this is apparently already happening to some extent. By "logic" is not meant here recursive function-theory, California model-theory, constructive proof-theory, or even axiomatic settheory. Such areas may or may not be useful for linguistics. Rather under "logic" are included our good old friends, the homely locutions "and," "or," "if-then," "if and only if," "not," "for all x," "for some x," and "is identical with," plus the calculus of individuals, event-logic, syntax, denotational semantics, and... various parts of pragmatics.... It is to these that the linguist can most profitably turn for help. These are his tools. And they are "clean tools," to borrow a phrase of the late J. L. Austin in another context, in fact, the only really clean ones we have, so that we might as well use them as much as we can. But they constitute only what may be called "baby logic." Baby logic is to the linguist what "baby mathematics" (in the phrase of Murray Gell-Mann) is to the theoretical physicist-very elementary but indispensable domains of theory in both cases. (Martin, 1969, pp. 261-262)There appears to be no branch of deductive inference that requires us to assume the existence of a mental logic in order to do justice to the psychological phenomena. To be logical, an individual requires, not formal rules of inference, but a tacit knowledge of the fundamental semantic principle governing any inference; a deduction is valid provided that there is no way of interpreting the premises correctly that is inconsistent with the conclusion. Logic provides a systematic method for searching for such counter-examples. The empirical evidence suggests that ordinary individuals possess no such methods. (Johnson-Laird, quoted in Mehler, Walker & Garrett, 1982, p. 130)The fundamental paradox of logic [that "there is no class (as a totality) of those classes which, each taken as a totality, do not belong to themselves" (Russell to Frege, 16 June 1902, in van Heijenoort, 1967, p. 125)] is with us still, bequeathed by Russell-by way of philosophy, mathematics, and even computer science-to the whole of twentieth-century thought. Twentieth-century philosophy would begin not with a foundation for logic, as Russell had hoped in 1900, but with the discovery in 1901 that no such foundation can be laid. (Everdell, 1997, p. 184)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Logic
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2 Logical Positivism
There have been many opponents of metaphysics from the Greek sceptics to the empiricists of the nineteenth century. Criticisms of very diverse kinds have been set forth. Many have declared that the doctrine of metaphysics is false, since it contradicts our empirical knowledge. Others have believed it to be uncertain, on the ground that its problems transcend the limits of human knowledge. Many anti-metaphysicians have declared that occupation with metaphysical questions is sterile. Whether or not these questions can be answered, it is at any rate unnecessary to worry about them; let us devote ourselves entirely to the practical tasks which confront active men every day of their lives!The development of modern logic has made it possible to give a new and sharper answer to the question of the validity and justification of metaphysics. The researchers of applied logic or the theory of knowledge, which aim at clarifying the cognitive content of scientific statements and thereby the meanings of the terms that occur in the statements, by means of logical analysis, lead to a positive and to a negative result. The positive result is worked out in the domain of empirical science; the various concepts of the various branches of science are clarified; their formal, logical and epistemological connections are made explicit.In the domain of metaphysics, including all philosophy of value and normative theory, logical analysis yields the negative result that the al leged statements in this domain are entirely meaningless. Therewith a radical elimination of metaphysics is attained, which was not yet possible from the earlier anti-metaphysical standpoints. (Carnap, 1959, p. 60)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Logical Positivism
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3 logical
adjective(thinking or acting) according to the rules of logic:It is logical to assume that you will get a higher salary if you are promoted
مَنْطِقيShe is always logical in her thinking.
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4 lògic
adj logical -
5 arorau
logic————————logical -
6 логика
logiclogical -
7 arorau
logic————————logical -
8 логическая схема
logic chart, logic circuit, logical circuit, logic(al) design, logic(al) diagram, logic, logical structureРусско-английский словарь по вычислительной технике и программированию > логическая схема
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9 логический
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10 логический блок
logic, logical organРусско-английский научно-технический словарь Масловского > логический блок
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11 न्यायः _nyāyḥ
न्यायः [नियन्ति अनेन; नि-इ घञ्]1 Method, manner, way, rule, system, plan; अधार्मिकं त्रिभिर्न्यायैर्निगृह्णीयात् प्रयत्नतः Ms.8.31; अनुक्ते हि न्याये न प्रतीमो$र्थान्तरम् ŚB. on MS.6. 2.5; तस्मान्नावस्थितो न्यायः प्रत्युद्ध्रियेत ŚB. on MS.6.2.1. ननु लिङ्गमसाधकं, न्याय उच्यतां यस्यैतद् द्योतकमिति ŚB. on MS.6. 2.3.-2 Fitness, propriety, decorum; न्यायाधारा हि साधवः Ki.11.3.-3 Law, justice, virtue, equity, righteousness, honesty; यान्ति न्यायप्रवृत्तस्य तिर्यञ्चो$पि सहायताम् A. R.1.4.-4 A law-suit, legal proceeding.-5 Judicial sentence, judgment.-6 Policy, good government.-7 Likeness, analogy.-8 A popular maxim, an apposite illustration, illustration, as दण्डापूपन्याय, काकतालीयन्याय, घुणाक्षरन्याय &c.; see Appendix.-9 A Vedic accent; न्यायैस्त्रिभिरुदीर्णम् Ku.2.12. (Malli. takes न्याय to mean स्वर; but it is quite open, in our opinion, to take न्याय in the sense of 'a system' or 'way'; 'which are manifested in three systems, i. e. ऋक्, यजुस् and सामन्'); न्यायगर्भद्विजाः Bh.3. 55.-1 (In gram.) A universal rule.-11 A system of Hindu philosophy founded by the sage Gautama.-12 The science of logic, logical philosophy.-13 A com- plete argument or syllogism (consisting of five mem- bers; i. e. प्रतिज्ञा, हेतु, उदाहरण, उपनय and निगमन).-14 An epithet of Viṣṇu. (न्यायेन ind. in the way of, after the manner or analogy of; बधिरान्मन्दकर्णः श्रेयानिति न्यायेन &c.).-Comp. -आगत a. rightly got, acquired (money).-आचार a. virtuous.-आधारः an example of virtue or propriety,-आभासः semblance of reason, sophism.-उपेत rightly admitted.-निर्वपण a. bestowing justly.-णः N. of Śiva; Mb.13.17.126 (com. न्याययुक्तं निर्वपणं दानं यस्य).-पथः the Mīmāṁsā philosophy; (pl.) the different philosophical systems; Bhāg.-वर्तिन् a. well behaved, acting justly.-वादिन् a. one who speaks what is right or just.-विद्या, -शिक्षा; see न्यायशास्त्र.-वृत्तम् good conduct, virtue.-शास्त्रम् 1 the philosophi- cal system of the Nyāya school.-2 the science of logic.-संबद्ध a. rational, logical.-सारिणी proper or suit- able behaviour.-सूत्रम् the aphorisms of Nyāya philo- sophy by Gautama.*****[Note: A few of the common Nyāyas or popular maxims that were given under this word by Prin. Apte are taken in the Appendix along with many others.] -
12 lógico
logician /person/, logical* * *logic, logical -
13 язык логики
Engineering: language of logic, logical language -
14 logisch
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15 आन्वीक्षिकी _ānvīkṣikī
आन्वीक्षिकी [अन्वीक्षा प्रयोजनमस्याः ठञ्]1 Logic, logical philosophy.-2 Metaphysics (आत्मविद्या q. v.); आन्वीक्षिक्यात्मविद्या स्यादीक्षणात्सुखदुःखयोः । ईक्षमाणस्तया तत्त्वं हर्षशोकौ व्युदस्यति ॥ Kām.2.11; आन्वीक्षिकीश्रवणाय Māl.1; Ms.7.43; (न्याय आन्वीक्षिकी पञ्चाध्यायी गौतमेन प्रणीता Madhu- sūdhana).-3 Philosophy of Sāṅkhya, Yoga and Lokāyata; साङ्ख्यं योगो लोकायतं चेत्यान्वीक्षिकी Kau. A.1.2. cf. also आन्वीक्षिकी त्रयी वार्ता दण्डनीतिश्चेति विद्याः Kau. A.1.2. आश्रयः सर्वधर्माणां शश्वदान्वीक्षिकी मता Kau. A.1.2; Bhāg.7.12.23. -
16 व्यतिरेकः _vyatirēkḥ
व्यतिरेकः 1 Distinction, difference; यथा गन्धस्य भूमश्च न भावो व्यतिरेकतः Bhāg.3.27.18.-2 Separation from.-3 Exclusion, exception.-4 Excellence, surpassing, excelling.-5 Contrast, dissimilarity.-6 (In logic) Logical discontinuance (opp. अन्वय q. v.); यत्र साध्या- भावस्तत्र हेत्वभाव इति व्यतिरेकव्याप्तिः (e. g. यत्र वह्निर्नास्ति तत्र धूमो नास्ति is an instance of व्यतिरेकव्याप्तिः).-7 (In Rhet.) A figure of speech which consists in representing the Upameya as superior to the Upamāna in some parti- cular respects; उपमानाद्यन्यस्य व्यतिरेकः स एव सः K.P.1. (व्यतिरेकेण means 'except, without'; व्यतिरेके 'on the contrary supposition'.).-Comp. -व्याप्ति see व्यतिरेक (6) above. -
17 आन्वीक्षिकी
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18 logisch
adj. logic, logical, argumentative, sequacious -
19 loogisuus
• logicality• logicalness• logic• logical -
20 logički
• log on; logic; logical; logically; logo; logon
См. также в других словарях:
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